Furthermore, means for the fear prompt elevated ratings on the anxiety subscale more than any other prompt, including anxiety (p = .03). In Study 3, additional positive words were included to better capture discrete positive emotions, and participants rated their endorsement of these words after guided imagery of emotional scenarios. For the relax subscale, ratings following relax scenario 2 differed only marginally (p = .07) from ratings following desire scenario 1. Study 3: Scenarios Used to Elicit Emotion. The current manuscript presents four studies that validate a new instrument, the Discrete Emotions Questionnaire (DEQ), that is sensitive to eight distinct state emotions: anger, disgust, fear, anxiety, sadness, happiness, relaxation, and desire. Emotion theory supporting the importance of distinguishing these specific emotions is reviewed The way in which the field dismisses emotion based on self-report alone demonstrates the necessity for more comprehensive scrutiny of emotional processes in mainstream psychology. Rate words following emotion-evoking photographs. Discover a faster, simpler path to publishing in a high-quality journal. Each set included five photographs. Emotion is a primary influence on psychological processes and behavior. The full-face expression of fear involves the eyebrows lifted and slightly pulled together; the eyes opened wide; and the corners of the mouth retracted straight back with the mouth slightly open [4, 5, 45]. However, if this manipulation evokes primarily sadness in a subset of participants, this would be missed if the researcher used only a measure of the single emotion of anger. Age ranged from 18 to 68 years (M = 32.21; SD = 10.57). > These concepts align with perspectives that examine appetitive or pre-goal positive states as being distinct from consummatory or post-goal positive states [56], or "wanting" as distinct from "liking" [57]. Evidence for sets of discrete emotions has been garnered from research on facial expressions and other behavioral expressions, as well as from direct brain stimulations of non-human animals. The “discrete emotions” model posits that each “basic” emotion has a relatively independent evolutionary antecedent and social-communicative function and is subserved by a discrete neural system. Most theories concerned with basic emotions have only carefully considered one or two positive emotions, and we believe that this is unfortunate for emotion science. Broadly speaking, these two states can be thought of as low- and high-approach positive affect. However, the positive emotion words on our preliminary scale loaded on the large first factor, which, based on past research [13], is equivalent to evaluation/valence. Each of these 8 tasks is measured either by a discrete, single item or a group of individual items that make up an ‘item parcel’ (Mayer et al., 2003). Participants then completed the Attitudes Toward Emotions scale (results of which are not of interest for this study and are not reported), demographic questions, and attention check questions that asked them to describe the two picture sets they had viewed. They were presented with the consent form and, if they chose to consent, they entered their initials into a box and clicked the option "I consent to participate." The Emotions Regulatio Questionnaire (ERQ) items were rationally derived, and indicated clearly in each item is the emotion regulatory process intended for measurement, such as “I control my emotions by changing the way I think about the situation I’m in” (reappraisal) and “I control my emotions by not expressing them” (suppression). Reliability for all subscales was high (Cronbach’s αs > 0.80, Table 10). These various theories have considerable overlap in the basic emotions proposed, even though they were arrived at using diverse methods, including facial expressions of adult humans (Ekman), behaviors of human infants and children (Izard), direct brain stimulation and behavioral responses of non-human animals (Panksepp), and sorting of emotion words by adult humans [39]. If you can't think of 4 words, write as many words as you can, and write 'none' in the other spaces.”. Data file for Study 3. Participants were 337 individuals (186 women, 148 men, 1 other, 2 declined to answer) residing in the United States who completed the study online using Amazon's Mechanical Turk. Based on these results, we conducted Study 3 with a more controlled emotion manipulation and additional positive emotion words. These are the kinds of stories people often write when they're asked to remember an emotional experience. In our view, whether the instrument has good factor structure in the absence of emotion-inducing situations is not informative. These five emotions constitute a five-factor model which forms the basis of our proposed questionnaire. However, discrete emotions also possess other characteristics that do not fall neatly into dimensions, such as specific action tendencies, subjective feelings, evoking situations, and cognitive appraisals. 8. We also created a neutral set, which was made up of pictures of rocks [69]. Scores on the target subscales were elevated significantly more than scores on the other subscales by these stimuli. Yet, it may not be necessary to use the entire DEQ when measuring emotion. When you have the experience in mind, and the emotions are strong, please go on to the next screen.”. To determine whether the emotion manipulation was successful, a judge who was blind to condition coded each story for whether it included each of the eight emotion themes (non-exclusive, S1 Data). Their reported ethnicities were White (366), African American (32), Asian (55), Hispanic/Latino (21), Native American (2), and Other (10). We created seven sets of photographs, intended to evoke the seven emotions measured by the instrument. However, these questionnaires measure traits and are not designed to measure state emotions. Overtime, additional emotions may be added to, and validated as part of, the DEQ. Thus, we included the two subscales in the DEQ. The method was identical to Study 2, except that, instead of being asked to recall an emotional memory, participants read, “On the next screen, you will read about the situation we would like you to imagine. The positive affective states of high-approach (desire) and low-approach (satisfaction) are associated with different neural structures and neurochemicals [6, 56, 57, 58]. Although ratings on the fear subscale were elevated more by the fear pictures than by the anxiety pictures, ratings on the anxiety subscale were elevated equally by fear and anxiety pictures. Despite including additional positive affect words, a unique factor for Love words did not emerge in the factor analysis. S1 Appendix. Please view each picture for the entire time it is presented. The results supported a rather vague relationship between discrete emotions and moral content judgment. You want to tell a close friend how you are feeling. Cindy Harmon-Jones, The story prompts for Study 1 were based on these themes from past research (Table 1). The data (S3 Data) were subjected to the same factor analysis parameters as used in Study 2. A supine posture has been found to reduce certain physiological responses associated with certain emotions [60, 61, 62]. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0159915, Editor: André Aleman, University of Groningen, NETHERLANDS, Received: March 2, 2016; Accepted: July 11, 2016; Published: August 8, 2016. The DEQ can be used as a relatively short measure of the “basic” emotions of anger, disgust, fear, sadness, and happiness, plus the theoretically interesting emotions of anxiety, desire (high approach), and relaxation (low approach positive). The Differential Emotions Scale (DES) (Izard, 1997s) is a multidimensional self-report device for assessment of an individual's emotions (whether fundamental emotions or patterns of emotions). Participants recalled emotional experiences, as in Study 1, and indicated their endorsement of these words. After giving informed consent, participants saw the following: “On the next screen, you will see instructions regarding the situation we would like you to remember. For example, from before, to during, to after taking an exam, the PA items clustered into three discrete positive emotions, “joy”, “interest”, and “activation” [11]. Accessibility Statement, Privacy This fMRI evidence presents a more mixed picture as to whether there is any discrete emotions specificity with brain regions. Although this terminology may be surprising to human researchers, PANIC/GRIEF, like human sadness, is a response to loss (particularly the infant animal's separation from the mother), and characterized by distress vocalizations (crying). In addition, because unreliable measures contain more measurement error, the determination of effect size between the unreliable measure and other measures will be more difficult than if reliable measures were used. Internet items are copyright protected. S1 Data. For two pairs of stories, the themes were similar and thus the response options were similar. Thus, if disgust is a basic emotion, researchers may need to devote additional effort to finding words that capture the construct. Our chapter aims to build consensus in the literature by showing that discrete emotions provide a mechanism through which stressors exert their impact on well-being. Means for the anger prompt did not differ from those for the anxiety prompt (p = .73). 7. Branch four – managing emotions: emotion management and emotional relationships tasks. You do not need permission to use measures that were published before 1924. The current manuscript presents four studies that validate a new instrument, the Discrete Emotions Questionnaire (DEQ), that is sensitive to eight distinct state emotions: anger, disgust, fear, anxiety, sadness, happiness, relaxation, and desire. In the space below, please fill in the blank with the word, or words, that you would say to tell a close friend how you feel.” The purpose of this question was to encourage participants to generate vernacular words that they would actually use, in the moment, to name their emotional experiences. That is, the (often poor) measurement of emotion should not be conflated with emotion itself. Although these are certainly not the only discrete emotions, they cover the broad categories considered basic and important by a number of emotion theorists [3, 4, 5, 39]. The ethnicities reported by participants were White (261), African American (16), Asian (31), Hispanic/Latino (19), Native American (3), and Other (6). Participants were 244 individuals (139 female, 104 male, 1 other) who completed the study on Amazon’s Mechanical Turk. [39] found that anxiety words (e. g., anxiety, nervousness, tenseness) form a branch within the Fear cluster. Composite variables (subscales) were created by taking the mean of the four items with the highest loadings on each factor and small cross-loadings on other factors (shown in bold in Table 4). Researchers do not administer cognitive measures in an attempt to “rule out” cognition as a factor in a psychological process (because cognition is assumed to play a role) and emotional/motivational processes are at least as fundamental as cognition. Participants were then randomly assigned to one set of pictures. As you read the story, please put yourself in the place of the person who is describing the experience. Recent years have seen an explosion in the study of emotions in organizations, and although emotions play a central role in the job stress process, their role is largely neglected in empirical stressor–strain studies. On the following screen, participants read, “In the space below, write ONE WORD that BEST names the emotion you experienced most strongly during this event.” After giving their open-ended response, participants proceeded to the next screen and read, “In the spaces below, write 4 more words that name the emotion you experienced most strongly during the event you wrote about. The second factor had an Eigenvalue of 5.58, and all of the fear and anxiety words loaded positively on this factor (except “shock,” which had a loading of 0.44). The Cognitive Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (CERQ; Garnefski et al., 2002) is a 36-item questionnaire developed to capture stable-dispositional cognitive emotion regulation strategies when people experience stressful life experiences (Feliu-Soler et al., 2017). These theories of emotion were developed by Paul Ekman [3, 38], Carroll Izard [4, 5], Jaak Panksepp [6], and Phillip Shaver and colleagues [39]. It is very important to the study that you understand and follow these instructions. This and all other studies in this article were reviewed and approved by The University of New South Wales Human Research Ethics Advisory Panel C: Psychology. J Behav 11: 11 Abstract Anger is often presumed to be a defensive emotion, masking the ability to feel other discrete emotions. Some of these questionnaires use multiple items to assess the broad dimensions of positive and negative affect, such as the Brief Mood Introspection Scale [15], or use single items to assess broad dimensions of valence, arousal, and dominance, such as the self-assessment manikin [16]. When laypersons sort emotion words into groupings, the Fear cluster includes words like horror, alarm, terror, and fear [39]. If self-report questionnaires of emotions have low reliability, the chances of observing correlations between specific emotions and other measured constructs is reduced, because the correlation between two measures is limited by the reliability of each measure. Indeed, the PANAS, which was originally published in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (JPSP), has been cited over 18,000 times (from Google Scholar, 22 July 2015), and is the most cited paper in JPSP behind Baron and Kenny’s [8] mediation-moderation paper (according to Google Scholar, 22 July 2015). The current manuscript presents four studies that validate a new instrument, the Discrete Emotions Questionnaire (DEQ), that is sensitive to eight distinct state emotions: anger, disgust, fear, anxiety, sadness, happiness, relaxation, and desire. ____When I want to feel more positive emotion, I change the way I’m thinking about the situation. Regarding the ‘debate’ between discrete approaches and dimensional approaches, we believe that both have value. Study 1: Most Frequently Generated Words for Each Condition. broad scope, and wide readership – a perfect fit for your research every time. To examine whether the subscales were sensitive to our emotion manipulation, one-way analyses of variance (ANOVA) were conducted with the emotion manipulations as independent variables and the mean ratings for each emotion category as the dependent measures (Table 5). Discrete emotions can be categorized along dimensions, including valence (positivity/negativity), arousal (high/low), and motivational direction (approach/avoid). The University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia, Affiliation: As you view the set of pictures, imagine yourself experiencing the events that the pictures show. The word “love” and its synonyms had high loadings on the first factor (Happiness). In fact, we are scarcely immune from the allure of premature discounting, having done so in the not-so-distant past [9]. [39] found that the two disgust-related words (disgust, revulsion) included in their emotions list clustered with the anger words, forming a branch along with contempt. In Study 1, we aimed to generate a list of words that individuals use to name emotions. Hamann’s [64] interpretation of this literature is prescient, “… although neuroimaging studies have identified consistent neural correlates associated with basic emotions and other emotion models, they have ruled out simple one-to-one mappings between emotions and brain regions, pointing to the need for more complex, network-based representations of emotion” (p. 458). S2 Data. You do not need permission to use U.S. federal government created measures. We based these additional items on theoretical and empirical distinctions between high- and low-approach positive affect [6, 57]. Composite variables (subscales) were created by taking the mean of the four items with the highest loadings on each factor (shown in bold in Table 7). Its supporting Information files in two questionnaires: Moral Content Judgment marginally ( =! Article aims to provide a state measure of a word ( e. g., anger is often conceptualized a... 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